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Perang Salib

Perang Salib adalah kumpulan gelombang dari pertikaian agama bersenjata yang dimulai oleh kaum Kristiani pada periode 1095 – 1291; biasanya direstui oleh Paus atas nama Agama Kristen, dengan tujuan untuk menguasai kembali Yerusalem dan “Tanah Suci” dari kekuasaan Muslim dan awalnya diluncurkan sebagai respon atas permohonan dari Kekaisaran Byzantium yang beragama Kristen Ortodox Timur untuk melawan ekspansi dari Dinasti Seljuk yang beragama Islam ke Anatolia.

Istilah ini juga digunakan untuk ekspedisi-ekspedisi kecil yang terjadi selama Abad ke 16 di wilayah diluar Benua Eropa, biasanya terhadap kaum pagan dan kaum non-Kristiani untuk alasan campuran antara agama, ekonomi dan politik. Skema penomoran tradisional atas Perang Salib memasukkan 9 ekspedisi besar ke Tanah Suci selama Abad ke 11 sampai dengan Abad ke 13. “Perang Salib” lainnya yang tidak bernomor berlanjut hingga Abad ke 16 dan berakhir ketika iklim politik dan agama di Eropa berubah secara signifikan selama masa Renaissance.

Perang Salib Anak-anak bukan suatu kampanye militer akan tetapi suatu pergerakan rakyat di Perancis dan/atau Jerman yang kemungkinan besar dengan maksud untuk mencapai Tanah Suci untuk secara damai meng-Kristen-kan umat Islam disana.

Perang Salib berpengaruh sangat luas terhadap aspek-aspek politik, ekonomi dan sosial, yang mana beberapa bahkan masih berpengaruh sampai masa kini. Karena konfilk internal antara kerajaan-kerajaan Kristen dan kekuatan-kekuatan politik, beberapa ekspedisi Perang Salib (seperti Perang Salib Keempat) bergeser dari tujuan semulanya dan berakhir dengan dijarahnya kota-kota Kristen, termasuk ibukota Byzantium, Konstantinopel. Perang Salib Keenam adalah perang salib pertama yang bertolak tanpa restu resmi dari gereja Katolik, dan menjadi contoh preseden yang memperbolehkan penguasa lain untuk secara individu menyerukan perang salib dalam ekspedisi berikutnya ke Tanah Suci. Konflik internal antara kerajaan-kerajaan Muslim dan kekuatan-kekuatan politik pun mengakibatkan persekutuan antara satu faksi melawan faksi lainnya seperti persekutuan antara kekuatan Tentara Salib dengan Kesultanan Rum yang Muslim dalam Perang Salib Kelima.

 Konteks Sejarah

 Kondisi Eropa Barat

Peta dari Semenanjung Iberia pada saat kedatangan Dinasti Almoravid pada Abad Ke 11- Kerajaan-Kerajaan Kristen terdiri dari Aragón, Castile, Leon, Navarre, dan Portugal

Asal mula ide perang salib adalah perkembangan yang terjadi di Eropa Barat sebelumnya pada Abad Pertengahan, selain itu juga menurunnya pengaruh Kekaisaran Byzantium di timur yang disebabkan oleh gelombang baru serangan Muslim Turki. Pecahnya Kekaisaran Carolingian pada akhir Abad Ke-9, dikombinasikan dengan stabilnya perbatasan Eropa sesudah peng-Kristen-an bangsa-bangsa Viking, Slav dan Magyar, telah membuat kelas petarung bersenjata yang energinya digunakan secara salah untuk bertengkar satu sama lain dan meneror penduduk setempat. Gereja berusaha untuk menekan kekerasan yang terjadi melalui gerakan-gerakan Pax Dei dan Treuga Dei. Usaha ini dinilai berhasil, akan tetapi para ksatria yang berpengalaman selalu mencari tempat untuk menyalurkan kekuatan mereka dan kesempatan untuk memperluas daerah kekuasaan pun menjadi semakin tidak menarik. Kecuali pada saat terjadi Reconquista di Spanyol dan Portugal, dimana pada saat itu ksatria-ksatria dari Iberia dan pasukan lain dari beberapa tempat di Eropa bertempur melawan pasukan Moor Islam, yang sebelumnya berhasil menyerang dan menaklukan sebagian besar Semenanjung Iberia dalam kurun waktu 2 abad.

Pada tahun 1063, Paus Alexander II memberikan restu kepausan bagi kaum Kristen Iberia untuk memerangi kaum Muslim. Paus memberikan baik restu kepausan standard maupun pengampunan bagi siapa saja yang terbunuh dalam pertempuran tersebut. Maka, permintaan yang datang dari Kekaisaran Byzantium yang sedang diancam oleh kaum Muslim Seljuk, menjadi perhatian semua orang. Hal ini terjadi pada tahun 1074, dari Kaisar Michael VII kepada Paus Gregorius VII dan sekali lagi pada tahun 1095, dari Kaisar Alexius I Comnenus kepada Paus Urbanus II.

Perang Salib adalah sebuah gambaran dari dorongan keagamaan yang intens yang merebak pada akhir abad ke-11 di masyarakat. Seorang tentara Salib, sesudah memberikan sumpah sucinya, akan menerima sebuah salib dari Paus atau wakilnya dan sejak saat itu akan dianggap sebagai “tentara gereja”. Hal ini sebagian adalah karena adanya Kontroversi Investiture, yang berlangsung mulai tahun 1075 dan masih berlangsung selama Perang Salib Pertama. Karena kedua belah pihak yang terlibat dalam Kontroversi Investiture berusaha untuk menarik pendapat publik, maka masyarakat menjadi terlibat secara pribadi dalam pertentangan keagamaan yang dramatis. Hasilnya adalah kebangkitan semangat Kristen dan ketertarikan publik pada masalah-masalah keagamaan. Hal ini kemudian diperkuat oleh propaganda keagamaan tentang Perang untuk Keadilan untuk mengambil kembali Tanah Suci – yang termasuk Yerusalem (dimana kematian, kebangkitan dan pengangkatan Yesus ke Surga terjadi menurut ajaran Kristen) dan Antioch (kota Kristen yang pertama) – dari orang Muslim. Selanjutnya, “Penebusan Dosa” adalah faktor penentu dalam hal ini. Ini menjadi dorongan bagi setiap orang yang merasa pernah berdosa untuk mencari cara menghindar dari kutukan abadi di Neraka. Persoalan ini diperdebatkan dengan hangat oleh para tentara salib tentang apa sebenarnya arti dari “penebusan dosa” itu. Kebanyakan mereka percaya bahwa dengan merebut Yerusalem kembali, mereka akan dijamin masuk surga pada saat mereka meninggal dunia. Akan tetapi, kontroversi yang terjadi adalah apa sebenarnya yang dijanjikan oleh paus yang berkuasa pada saat itu. Suatu teori menyatakan bahwa jika seseorang gugur ketika bertempur untuk Yerusalemlah “penebusan dosa” itu berlaku. Teori ini mendekati kepada apa yang diucapkan oleh Paus Urbanus II dalam pidato-pidatonya. Ini berarti bahwa jika para tentara salib berhasil merebut Yerusalem, maka orang-orang yang selamat dalam pertempuran tidak akan diberikan “penebusan”. Teori yang lain menyebutkan bahwa jika seseorang telah sampai ke Yerusalem, orang tersebut akan dibebaskan dari dosa-dosanya sebelum Perang Salib. Oleh karena itu, orang tersebut akan tetap bisa masuk Neraka jika melakukan dosa sesudah Perang Salib. Seluruh faktor inilah yang memberikan dukungan masyarakat kepada Perang Salib Pertama dan kebangkitan keagamaan pada abad ke-12.

 Situasi Timur Tengah

Keberadaan Muslim di Tanah Suci harus dilihat sejak penaklukan bangsa Arab terhadap Palestina pada abad ke-7. Hal ini sebenarnya tidak terlalu mempengaruhi penziarahan ke tempat-tempat suci kaum Kristiani atau keamanan dari biara-biara dan masyarakat Kristen di Tanah Suci Kristen ini. Sementara itu, bangsa-bangsa di Eropa Barat tidak terlalu perduli atas dikuasainya Yerusalem – yang berada jauh di Timur – sampai ketika mereka sendiri mulai menghadapi invasi dari orang-orang Islam dan bangsa-bangsa non-Kristen lainnya seperti bangsa Viking dan Magyar. Akan tetapi, kekuatan bersenjata kaum Muslimlah yang berhasil memberikan tekanan yang kuat kepada kekuasaan Kekaisaran Byzantium yang beragama Kristen Orthodox Timur.

Titik balik lain yang berpengaruh terhadap pandangan Barat kepada Timur adalah ketika pada tahun 1009, kalifah Bani Fatimiah, Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah memerintahkan penghancuran Gereja Makam Suci (Church of The Holy Sepulchre). Penerusnya memperbolehkan Kekaisaran Byzantium untuk membangun gereja itu kembali dan memperbolehkan para peziarah untuk berziarah di tempat itu lagi. Akan tetapi banyak laporan yang beredar di Barat tentang kekejaman kaum Muslim terhadap para peziarah Kristen. Laporan yang didapat dari para peziarah yang pulang ini kemudian memainkan peranan penting dalam perkembangan Perang Salib pada akhir abad itu.

 Penyebab Langsung

Penyebab langsung dari Perang Salib Pertama adalah permohonan Kaisar Alexius I kepada Paus Urbanus II untuk menolong Kekaisaran Byzantium menahan laju invasi tentara Muslim ke dalam wilayah kekaisaran tersebut. Pada tahun 1071, di Pertempuran Manzikert, Kekaisaran Byzantium telah dikalahkan oleh pasukan Muslim Seljuk dan kekalahan ini berujung kepada dikuasainya hampir seluruh wilayah Asia Kecil (Turki modern). Meskipun Pertentangan Timur-Barat seldang berlangsung antara gereja Katolik Barat dengan gereja Orthodox Timur, Alexius I mengharapkan respon yang positif atas permohonannya. Bagaimanapun, respon yang didapat amat besar dan hanya sedikit bermanfaat bagi Alexius I. Paus menyeru bagi kekuatan invasi yang besar bukan saja untuk mempertahankan Kekaisaran Byzantium, akan tetapi untuk merebut kembali Yerusalem.

Ketika Perang Salib Pertama didengungkan pada tahun 1095, para pangeran Kristen dari Iberia sedang bertempur untuk keluar dari pegunungan Galicia dan Asturia, wilayah Basque dan Navarre, dengan tingkat keberhasilan yang tinggi, selama seratus tahun. Kejatuhan bangsa Moor Toledo kepada Kerajaan Leon pada tahun 1085 adalah kemenangan yang besar. Ketidak bersatuan penguasa-penguasa Muslim merupakan faktor yang penting, dan kaum Kristen, yang meninggalkan para wanitanya di garis belakang, amat sulit untuk dikalahkan. Mereka tidak mengenal hal lain selain bertempur, mereka tidak memiliki taman-taman atau perpustakaan untuk dipertahankan. Para ksatria Kristen ini merasa bahwa mereka bertempur di lingkungan asing yang dipenuhi oleh orang kafir sehingga mereka dapat berbuat dan merusak sekehendak hatinya. Seluruh faktor ini kemudian akan dimainkan kembali di lapangan pertempuran di Timur. Ahli sejarah Spanyol melihat bahwa Reconquista adalah kekuatan besar dari karakter Castilia, dengan perasaan bahwa kebaikan yang tertinggi adalah mati dalam pertempuran mempertahankan ke-Kristen-an suatu Negara.

 Kondisi Sesudah Perang Salib Pertama

Perang Salib Pertama melepaskan gelombang semangat perasaan paling suci sendiri yang diekspresikan dengan pembantaian terhadap orang-orang Yahudi yang menyertai pergerakan tentara Salib melintasi Eropa dan juga perlakuan kasar terhadap pemeluk Kristen Orthodox Timur. Kekerasan terhadap Kristen Orthodox ini berpuncak pada penjarahan kota Konstantinopel pada tahun 1024, dimana seluruh kekuatan tentara Salib ikut serta. Selama terjadinya serangan-serangan terhadap orang Yahudi, pendeta lokal dan orang Kristen berupaya melindungi orang Yahudi dari pasukan Salib yang melintas. Orang Yahudi seringkali diberikan perlindungan di dalam gereja atau bangunan Kristen lainnya, akan tetapi, massa yang beringas selalu menerobos masuk dan membunuh mereka tanpa pandang bulu.

Pada abad ke-13, perang salib tidak pernah mencapai tingkat kepopuleran yang tinggi di masyarakat. Sesudah kota Acra jatuh untuk terakhir kalinya pada tahun 1291 dan sesudah penghancuran bangsa Occitan (Perancis Selatan) yang berpaham Catharisme pada Perang Salib Albigensian, ide perang salib mengalami kemerosotan nilai yang diakibatkan oleh pembenaran lembaga Kepausan terhadap agresi politik dan wilayah yang terjadi di Katolik Eropa.

Orde Ksatria Salib yang terakhir yang mempertahankan wilayah adalah orde Knights Hospitaller. Sesudah kejatuhan Acra yang terakhir, orde ini menguasai Pulau Rhodes dan pada abad ke-16 dibuang ke Malta. Tentara-tentara Salib yang terakhir ini akhirnya dibubarkan oleh Napoleon Bonaparte pada tahun 1798.

 Peninggalan

Benua Eropa

Perang Salib selalu dikenang oleh bangsa-bangsa di Eropa bagian Barat dimana pada masa Perang Salib merupakan negara-negara Katolik Roma. Sungguh pun demikian, banyak pula kritikan pedas terhadap Perang Salib di negara-negara Eropa Barat pada masa Renaissance.

 Politik dan Budaya

Perang Salib amat mempengaruhi Eropa pada Abad Pertengahan. Pada masa itu, sebagian besar benua dipersatukan oleh kekuasaan Kepausan, akan tetapi pada abad ke-14, perkembangan birokrasi yang terpusat (dasar dari negara-bangsa modern) sedang pesat di Perancis, Inggris, Burgundi, Portugal, Castilia dan Aragon. Hal ini sebagian didorong oleh dominasi gereja pada masa awal perang salib.

Meski benua Eropa telah bersinggungan dengan budaya Islam selama berabad-abad melalui hubungan antara Semenanjung Iberia dengan Sisilia, banyak ilmu pengetahuan di bidang-bidang sains, pengobatan dan arsitektur diserap dari dunia Islam ke dunia Barat selama masa perang salib.

Pengalaman militer perang salib juga memiliki pengaruh di Eropa, seperti misalnya, kastil-kastil di Eropa mulai menggunakan bahan dari batu-batuan yang tebal dan besar seperti yang dibuat di Timur, tidak lagi menggunakan bahan kayu seperti sebelumnya. Sebagai tambahan, tentara Salib dianggap sebagai pembawa budaya Eropa ke dunia, terutama Asia.

Bersama perdagangan, penemuan-penemuan dan penciptaan-penciptaan sains baru mencapai timur atau barat. Kemajuan bangsa Arab termasuk perkembangan aljabar, lensa dan lain lain mencapai barat dan menambah laju perkembangan di universitas-universitas Eropa yang kemudian mengarahkan kepada masa Renaissance pada abad-abad berikutnya.

Perdagangan

Kebutuhan untuk memuat, mengirimkan dan menyediakan balatentara yang besar menumbuhkan perdagangan di seluruh Eropa. Jalan-jalan yang sebagian besar tidak pernah digunakan sejak masa pendudukan Romawi, terlihat mengalami peningkatan disebabkan oleh para pedagang yang berniat mengembangkan usahanya. Ini bukan saja karena Perang Salib mempersiapkan Eropa untuk bepergian akan tetapi lebih karena banyak orang ingin bepergian setelah diperkenalkan dengan produk-produk dari timur. Hal ini juga membantu pada masa-masa awal Renaissance di Itali, karena banyak negara-kota di Itali yang sejak awal memiliki hubungan perdagangan yang penting dan menguntungkan dengan negara-negara Salib, baik di Tanah Suci maupun kemudian di daerah-daerah bekas Byzantium.

Pertumbuhan perdagangan membawa banyak barang ke Eropa yang sebelumnya tidak mereka kenal atau amat jarang ditemukan dan sangat mahal. Barang-barang ini termasuk berbagai macam rempah-rempah, gading, batu-batu mulia, teknik pembuatan barang kaca yang maju, bentuk awal dari mesiu, jeruk, apel, hasil-hasil tanaman Asia lainnya dan banyak lagi.
Keberhasilan untuk melestarikan Katolik Eropa, bagaimanapun, tidak dapat mengabaikan kejatuhan Kekaisaran Kristen Byzantium, yang sebagian besar diakibatkan oleh kekerasan tentara Salib pada Perang Salib Keempat terhadap Kristen Orthodox Timur, terutama pembersihan yang dilakukan oleh Enrico Dandolo yang terkenal, penguasa Venesia dan sponsor Perang Salib Keempat. Tanah Byzantium adalah negara Kristen yang stabil sejak abad ke-4. Sesudah tentara Salib mengambil alih Konstantinopel pada tahun 1204, Byzantium tidak pernah lagi menjadi sebesar atau sekuat sebelumnya dan akhirnya jatuh pada tahun 1453.

Melihat apa yang terjadi terhadap Byzantium, Perang Salib lebih dapat digambarkan sebagai perlawanan Katolik Roma terhadap ekspansi Islam, ketimbang perlawanan Kristen secara utuh terhadap ekspansi Islam. Di lain pihak, Perang Salib Keempat dapat disebut sebuah anomali. Kita juga dapat mengambil suatu kompromi atas kedua pendapat diatas, khususnya bahwa Perang Salib adalah cara Katolik Roma utama dalam menyelamatkan Katolikisme, yaitu tujuan yang utama adalah memerangi Islam dan tujuan yang kedua adalah mencoba menyelamatkan ke-Kristen-an, dalam konteks inilah, Perang Salib Keempat dapat dikatakan mengabaikan tujuan yang kedua untuk memperoleh bantuan logistik bagi Dandolo untuk mencapai tujuan yang utama. Meski begitu, Perang Salib Keempat ditentang oleh Paus pada saat itu dan secara umum dikenang sebagai suatu kesalahan besar.

Dunia Islam

Perang salib memiliki efek yang buruk tetapi terlokalisir pada dunia Islam. Dimana persamaan antara “Bangsa Frank” dengan “Tentara Salib” meninggalkan bekas yang amat dalam. Muslim secara tradisional mengelu-elukan Saladin, seorang ksatria Kurdi, sebagai pahlawan Perang Salib. Pada abad ke-21, sebagian dunia Arab, seperti gerakan kemerdekaan Arab dan gerakan Pan-Islamisme masih terus menyebut keterlibatan dunia Barat di Timur Tengah sebagai “perang salib”. Perang Salib dianggap oleh dunia Islam sebagai pembantaian yang kejam dan keji oleh kaum Kristen Eropa.

Konsekuensi yang secara jangka panjang menghancurkan tentang perang salib, menurut ahli sejarah Peter Mansfield, adalah pembentukan mental dunia Islam yang cenderung menarik diri. Menurut Peter Mansfield, “Diserang dari berbagai arah, dunia Islam berpaling ke dirinya sendiri. Ia menjadi sangat sensitive dan defensive……sikap yang tumbuh menjadi semakin buruk seiring dengan perkembangan dunia, suatu proses dimana dunia Islam merasa dikucilkan, terus berlanjut.”

Komunitas Yahudi

Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Sejarah Yahudi dan Perang Salib

Ilustrasi dalam Injil Perancis dari tahun 1250 yang menggambarkan pembantaian orang Yahudi (dikenali dari topinya yakni Judenhut) oleh tentara Salib

Kekerasan tentara Salib terhadap bangsa Yahudi di kota-kota di Jerman dan Hongaria, belakangan juga terjadi di Perancis dan Inggris, dan pembantaian Yahudi di Palestina dan Syria menjadi bagian yang penting dalam sejarah Anti-Semit, meski tidak ada satu perang salib pun yang pernah dikumandangkan melawan Yahudi. Serangan-serangan ini meninggalkan bekas yang mendalam dan kesan yang buruk pada kedua belah pihak selama berabad-abad. Posisi sosial bangsa Yahudi di Eropa Barat semakin merosot dan pembatasan meningkat selama dan sesudah Perang Salib. Hal ini memuluskan jalan bagi legalisasi Anti-Yahudi oleh Paus Innocentius III dan membentuk titik balik bagi Anti-Semit abad pertengahan.

Periode perang salib diungkapkan dalam banyak narasi Yahudi. Diantara narasi-narasi itu, yang terkenal adalah catatan-catatan Solomon bar Simson dan Rabbi Eliezer bar Nathan, “The Narrative of The Old Persecution” yang ditulis oleh Mainz Anonymus dan “Sefer Zekhirah” dan “The Book of Remembrance” oleh Rabbi Ephrain dari Bonn.

 Pegunungan Kaukasus

Di Pegunungan Kaukasus di Georgia, di dataran tinggi Khevsureti yang terpencil, ada sebuah suku yang disebut Khevsurs yang dianggap merupakan keturunan langsung dari sebuah kelompok tentara salib yang terpisah dari induk pasukannya dan tetap dalam keadaan terisolasi dengan sebagian budaya perang salib yang masih utuh. Memasuki abad ke-20, peninggalan dari baju perang, persenjataan dan baju rantai masih digunakan dan terus diturunkan dalam komunitas tersebut. Ahli ethnografi Rusia, Arnold Zisserman, yang menghabiskan 25 tahun (1842 – 1862) di pegunungan Kaukasus, percaya bahwa kelompok dari dataran tinggi Georgia ini adalah keturunan dari tentara Salib yang terakhir berdasarkan dari kebiasaan, bahasa, kesenian dan bukti-bukti yang lain. Penjelajah Amerika Richard Halliburton melihat dan mencatat kebiasaan suku ini pada tahun 1935.

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Dilema Ujian nasional

Sejak hasil Ujian Nasional SMU dipublikasikan Senin lalu dan banyak siswa yang tidak lulus karena nilainya dibawah 4.25, bertubi-tubi kritikan terus melayang ke pemerintah. Mulai dari “tidak sensitif terhadap permasalahan”, sampai ke “pemerintah melanggar HAM!”. Sayangnya hampir semua kritikan tidak konstruktif. Misalnya, pernah ada siswa yang memprotes kenapa belajar 3 tahun ditentukan 3 jam? Ada juga yang protes kenapa kelulusan ditentukan hanya dengan 3 mata pelajaran.

Kalau ujian 3 mata pelajaran saja tidak lulus, kalau ditambah lagi, jangan-jangan semakin tidak lulus?

Ujian 3 jam untuk menilai proses belajar 3 tahun juga tidak dapat terlalu disalahkan. Tentu saja hasil ujian nasional bisa lebih mencerminkan kualitas akademik siswa kalau frekuensinya lebih sering (contoh: 3 bulan sekali). Tetapi dengan kekurangan anggaran nasional yang terus terjadi, akan terasa lebih pantas kalau dana pemerintah dipakai untuk memperbaiki kualitas guru dan sarana pengajaran.

Ini kembali mengingatkan kita kalau UN bukan masalah gampang. Di satu sisi eksekutif ditekan untuk meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan, dan di sisi yang lain juga dituntut untuk meluluskan sebanyak mungkin siswa.

Ada dua rantai dalam meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan, pertama meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan itu sendiri, dan yang kedua adalah mengevaluasi output dari hasil pendidikan, antara lain dengan UN. Jika kualitas sudah diupayakan untuk meningkat, tapi tidak pernah dievaluasi, lalu dari mana pemerintah tahu kalau kualitas pendidikan sudah lebih baik. Kalau sudah dievaluasi, dan siswa-siswa yang kualitasnya dibawah standar tetap diluluskan, berarti pemerintah melakukan kebohongan publik.

Atau standarnya diturunkan? Nilai minimum 4,25 saja sudah terdengar sangat rendah, kalau diturunkan berarti kualitas akademik pelajar Indonesia semakin rendah. Atau standar kelulusan ditentukan secara regional (apalagi dengan semangat otonomi daerah)? Berarti si Fulan bisa jadi orang pintar di provinsi A tapi jadi orang geblek di provinsi B. Bukannya seharusnya kepintaran adalah sesuatu yang universal?

Oleh karena itu, ujian nasional harus tetap diadakan, dengan standar (yang kalau bisa) terus menerus dinaikkan. Tetapi ini tidak berarti pemerintah tinggal berpangku tangan, karena anda, pemerintah, punya ujian yang jauh lebih berat, yaitu meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan.

SKL SMP, SMA, SMK, Permen 45/2006, POS UN 2007 Berikut ini hal terkait ujian nasional 2007. Ini hanyalah link altenatif. Hari ini (16/12/2006) saya baru dapat dari milis puskur tentang ujian nasional ini. Hanya saja untuk SD tidak ada, yang ada untuk ujian SMP, SMA, SMK saja. Saya upload lagi namun dipisahkan antara SKL SMP, SMA, SMK, termasuk di dalamnya Permendiknas no 45 tahun 2006 dan POS UN 2007.Klik saja link-link berikut untuk mendownloadnya. Jika belum tahu cara mendownloadnya silahkan baca caranya di sini.

Di postingan ini bisa didownload antara lain:

1. Permen-diknas No 45 Tahun 2006 tentang ujian nasional 2007
2. PROSEDUR OPERASI STANDAR (POS) UJIAN NASIONAL SMP, MTs, SMPLB, SMA, MA, SMALB, DAN SMK TAHUN PELAJARAN 2006/2007
3. STANDAR KOMPETENSI LULUSAN (SKL)

• SKL untuk SMP (B. Indonesia, B. Inggris, Matematika)

• SKL untuk SMA IPA: (B. Indonesia, B. Inggris, Matematika)

• SKL untuk SMA IPS: (B. Indonesia, B. Inggris, Ekonomi)

• SKL untuk SMA Bahasa (B. Indonesia, B. Inggris, B. Arab, B. Perancis, B. Mandarin, B. Jepang, B. Jerman)

• SKL untuk SMK: (B. Indonesia, B Inggris, Matematika Teknik, Matematika Non Teknik 1, Matematika Non Teknik 2)

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Link alternatif yg bisa didownload secara langsung, berformat pdf/doc adalah sebagai berikut :

Permendiknas No 45 tentang UN (pdf)

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Parade Bunga Tomohon

Tentu Anda pernah dengar tentang Tournament of Roses di Pasadena, California, yang ditandai dengan arak-arakan akbar bertajuk Rose Parade. Tahun 2006 ini, tidak seperti lazimnya, parade bunga itu diselenggarakan pada tanggal 2 Januari. Padahal, biasanya selalu diadakan setiap tahun pada tanggal 1 Januari. Rupanya, mereka harus mematuhi konvensi yang berbunyi “Never On Sunday” untuk menyelenggarakan arak-arakan itu.
Biasanya, warga sudah berkumpul memadati tepi jalan yang akan dilalui parade sejak sore hari tanggal 31 Desember. Mereka berkelompok sebagai keluarga atau sekumpulan teman. Mereka berkemah di lebuh-lebuh jalan, lengkap dengan makanan dan minuman untuk merayakan pergantian tahun. Bila lelah dan mengantuk, mereka tidur dalam sleeping bag yang sudah dipersiapkan. Keesokan harinya, mereka bangun, cuci muka, sarapan, dan bersiap menonton parade yang dimulai sejak pukul delapan pagi.
Ketika pertama kali saya datang ke Pasadena untuk melihat Rose Parade, dan karena saya tidak ikut “berkemah” sejak malam sebelumnya, saya mendapat tempat di belakang, sehingga sulit melihat parade yang indah itu. Tahun berikutnya, saya datang membawa tangga lipat, dan duduk di atas tangga dengan sebotol minuman dan sekantung jajanan untuk melihat parade dengan tenang.
Parade kereta berhias bunga (float) yang panjangnya bisa mencapai delapan kilometer itu bergerak ke Utara menyusuri South Orange Boulevard dari Ellis Street, belok ke Timur di Colorado Boulevard menuju Sierra Madre Boulevard, dan mengutara kembali ke Paloma Street. Ratusan ribu penonton tersebar di sepanjang lintasan.
Parade selalu didahului oleh kendaraan Grand Marshall yang biasanya dipilih dari tokoh atau artis terkenal. Di sela-sela kereta hias, marching band atau rombongan penunggang kuda yang menampilkan berbagai tema, memberi hiburan yang menyenangkan.
Tema untuk tahun 2006 ini adalah “It’s Magical”. Untuk tahun 2007 nanti, temanya pun sudah ditetapkan, yaitu: “Our Good Nature”. Rose Parade, dengan sejarahnya yang sudah berusia 117 tahun, memang merupakan acara yang terlembaga secara rapi. Untuk tahun 2007, panitia dan polisi telah membuat perkiraan sekitar satu juta orang akan tumplek bleg ke Pasadena. Bayangkan, berapa juta kaleng minuman, berapa ratus ribu hamburger, pizzas, tacos, dan berapa ratus kamar hotel yang akan menjadi ekonomi Pasadena karena penyelenggaraan acara tahunan itu?
Jangan lupa, Indonesia pun sudah sering tampil di parade bergengsi ini. Sejak keikutsertaannya yang pertama pada tahun 1991, Indonesia sudah enam kali berturut-turut memenangi Rose Parade di Pasadena itu. Anehnya, Indonesia malah tidak hadir dalam parade serupa yang menjadi acara tahunan di Singapura.
Jakarta pun Yayasan Bunga Nusantara – yayasan yang juga mewakili keikutsertaan Indonesia di Rose Parade dan membina Taman Bunga Nusantara – pernah menyelenggarakan Parade Bunga untuk merayakan Hari Proklamasi Kemerdekaan. Sayangnya, atraksi itu hanya sempat berjalan selama beberapa tahun, dan kemudian sirna setelah krisis mendera bangsa kita. Kota Bandung juga mempunyai acara tetap tahunan Parade Bunga untuk memeringati HUT Kota Kembang setiap bulan September.
Akhir Januari yang lalu, saya diundang Walikota Tomohon, Jefferson SM Rumayar, untuk menghadiri ulang tahun Kota Tomohon yang ketiga. Tomohon memang baru saja resmi menjadi kota – hasil pengembangan wilayah – sejak 25 Januari 2002. Kebetulan, menjelang Natal 2005 saya sudah sempat bertemu dengan Wakil Walikota Tomohon, Syenny Watoelangkow.
Jefferson yang masih muda dan penuh dinamika itu memang tampak semangat mem-promosi-kan Tomohon. Ia sadar benar bahwa Tomohon yang dulu dikenal sebagai Kota Pendidikan mempunyai aset yang lebih dari cukup untuk dikembangkan menjadi Kota Tujuan Wisata. Ia sangat senang karena saya pernah menulis komentar William Wongso yang mengatakan bahwa Pasar Tomohon adalah pasar tradisional yang terbaik di Indonesia. Ia malah akan memperbaiki pasar itu akan menjadi salah satu daya tarik wisata Tomohon.
Karena percaya bahwa budaya adalah alat perekat yang ampuh bagi keutuhan dan persatuan masyarakat, Jefferson juga punya program agar setiap desa di wilayah Kota Tomohon harus mempunyai satu kelompok tari maengket, satu kelompok musik bambu, dan satu kelompok musik kolintang.
Untuk memberi ciri khusus Tomohon sebagai Kota Bunga, Jefferson pun menetapkan acara Tournament of Flowers sebagai puncak peringatan hari ulang tahun Tomohon yang akan menjadi acara tetap setiap tahun. Ia tak ragu mengacu pada Pasadena’s Tournament of Roses sebagai bahan referensi. “Yang pertama ini untuk dijadikan uji coba dulu,” katanya. “Kalau nanti kami sudah cukup belajar, siapa tahu orang Minahasa yang sudah bermukim di luar negeri, dan wisatawan nusantara lainnya akan tertarik berkunjung ke Tomohon untuk melihat parade bunga ini?”
Dalam penampilan pertamanya, sejumlah 98 peserta sempat mendaftarkan diri untuk menampilkan kendaraan hias. Tetapi, karena berbagai kendala teknis, antara lain karena hujan deras yang mengguyur kota, hanya 66 floats yang tampil berparade. Menurut catatan panitia, bunga dan daun yang ditampilkan dalam parade bunga itu mencapai hampir seratus jenis.
Tomohon yang berhawa sejuk memang merupakan tempat yang cocok untuk berkebun bunga. Yang terbanyak adalah bunga lili dengan berbagai warna cerah. Menjelang Natal dan Tahun Baru, di sepanjang jalan tampak penjual bunga berbagai jenis dan warna. Kekayaan bunga juga membuat Walikota Tomohon ingin menjadikan kotanya sebagai pengekspor bunga. “Jangan lupa, Tomohon adalah kota yang sekitar tujuh puluh persen warganya adalah petani,” kata Pak Walikota yang muda dan ganteng itu.
Salah satu syarat Parade Bunga Tomohon adalah menampilkan bunga dan daun asli. Bila memakai bunga dan daun plastik, peserta akan didiskualifikasi. Sayangnya, desain yang ditampilkan masih terlalu sederhana, dan belum dieksekusi dengan baik. Kendaraan yang dipakai masih tampak “telanjang”, sehingga bunga dan daun se-olah-olah hanya merupakan tempelan belaka. Ini berbeda sekali dengan floats yang tampil di Pasadena yang merupakan flatbeds berukuran besar dan pengemudinya pun tersamar dengan rapi.
Yang juga disayangkan, sekalipun Sulawesi Utara dikenal kecantikan gadis-gadisnya, hanya ada satu kendaraan hias yang menampilkan gadis Kawanua. Padahal, di Pasadena, penampilan gadis cantik dan pemuda ganteng di atas kendaraan hias merupakan unsur penunjang yang sangat kuat. Unsur-unsur budaya lokal seperti penari maengket, musik bambu, dan musik kolintang pun absen dalam arak-arakan itu.
Untungnya ada dua kelompok marching band, dan satu kelompok equestrian (penunggang kuda) di sela-sela kendaraan berhias bunga yang silih berganti tampil melintasi panggung kehormatan.
Sebagai ujicoba yang pertama, Parade Bunga Tomohon patut diacungi jempol. Setidaknya dari segi semangat yang ditunjukkan. Kekayaan jenis bunga dan daun Tomohon jelas akan menjadi unsur penunjang yang signifikan, bila dibarengi dengan desain floats yang matang.
Dengan elemen-elemen yang dipunyainya, Ulang Tahun Tomohon jelas dapat dikemas menjadi sebuah festival budaya yang menarik banyak pengunjung. Parade Bunga Tomohon tidak perlu menjadi sebesar Pasadena’s Rose Festival. Kecilnya Kota Tomohon dan keramahan warganya justru cocok untuk menampilkan sebuah pesta rakyat yang meriah dengan Parade Bunga sebagai salah satu atraksi utama.

Akatsuki member

Itachi Uchiha

Main article: Itachi Uchiha

• Membership status: Active
• Ring: 朱 (”scarlet”, “bloody”)
• Ring position: Right ring finger
• Partner: Kisame Hoshigaki
• Defining characteristics: Mastery of the Sharingan and Mangekyo Sharingan, mastery of genjutsu, mastery of Uchiha fire-based jutsu.

Template:Nihongo, a missing-nin from Konohagakure, is the partner of Kisame Hoshigaki and the first Akatsuki member to be introduced. Itachi is one of the last remaining members of the Uchiha Clan, the others are his brother Sasuke Uchiha and Madara Uchiha (known as Akatsuki’s Tobi). He is responsible for many events in the series, such as the Uchiha Clan massacre and Orochimaru’s defection of Akatsuki. Itachi has complete mastery of the Sharingan and Mangekyo Sharingan, and also an extremely proficient user of ninjutsu and genjutsu. Itachi’s targeted tailed beast is the Nine-Tailed Demon Fox.

Kisame Hoshigaki

Kisame Hoshigaki

• Age: 29 in Part I^[1], 31 in Part II
• Membership status: Active
• Ring: 南 (”south”)
• Ring position: Left ring finger
• Partner: Itachi Uchiha
• First appearance: Chapter 139; Naruto Episode 80
• Defining characteristics: Shark-like appearance, expert in water-based jutsu, exceptionally large chakra supply, high physical strength and speed, Samehada (sentient, chakra-absorbing sword).
• Seiyu: Tomoyuki Dan
• Voice actor: Kirk Thornton

Template:Nihongo is a missing-nin from Kirigakure and is partnered with Itachi Uchiha. Unlike most other two-man teams of Akatsuki, Kisame gets along well with his partner. While Itachi is assigned to Naruto Uzumaki, Kisame’s target is the host of the four-tailed beast, an elderly man whom Kisame defeats with some effort.^[2] Kisame has a distinctive shark-like appearance, complete with pale blue skin, small white eyes, gill-like facial structures, and sharp triangular teeth. Even his name, Kisame (鬼鮫), means “Demon Shark”. Despite his rather brutish appearance and his apparent love for battle, Kisame speaks in a calm and polite manner compared to most of the other members of Akatsuki.

Kisame was also one of the Template:Nihongo and is known as the Template:Nihongo of the Hidden Mist. Zabuza Momochi and Raiga Kurosuki were also members. Like the other two members, he is somewhat overconfident in battle. He also clearly enjoys fighting and possibly mutilating his opponents; for example, he entertains the idea of removing Naruto’s legs to keep him from running instead of the much simpler method of knocking Naruto unconscious. During his battle with Asuma Sarutobi, Kisame also took great pleasure in shredding his shoulder with Samehada.

Image:Samehada.jpg

Kisame using Samehada.

Kisame’s main weapon is Samehada (鮫肌, “Shark skin”), a large unique sword of comparable size to Zabuza Momochi’s zanbatō. Unlike a regular sword, Samehada is covered in large scales that shave instead of cut, much like a shark’s skin (hence the name). It also has the ability to absorb any chakra around it, allowing Kisame to literally cut through his opponent’s chakra. The amount that it can absorb is unclear, but it can even consume the demon fox’s chakra with no ill effects. Samehada is also a sentient weapon and only allows Kisame to wield it.^[3] When Might Guy attempted to hold Samehada and use it against Kisame, it responded with a flurry of spikes from its handle and found its way back to Kisame.^[4]

The amount of chakra Kisame possesses is apparently very large, even by Akatsuki’s standards. Their leader commented on this; a Kisame body-double at thirty-percent power – made with the leader’s Shapeshifting Technique – had as much chakra as Naruto while drawing on demon fox’s chakra when he fought Neji during the Chunin exams, an observation made by Neji Hyuga when he observed Kisame’s body-double with his Byakugan.^[5]

Kisame has displayed astonishing speed and incredible physical strength. He uses water-based jutsu in combination with his powerful physical attacks. He has also demonstrated the ability to use Template:Nihongo, allowing him to create water from nothing^[6] and turn any potential battleground into a lake for his other water-based attacks. In addition to using the more generic of water-based jutsu, Kisame also uses a number of shark-themed jutsu, such as using Template:Nihongo to attack opponents with a burst of water in the form of a shark. When an opponent is knocked into a body of water, Kisame can use Template:Nihongo to create five sharks to attack them with.

Pein

Pein

• Membership status: Active leader
• Ring: 零 (”nothing”, “zero”)
• Ring position: Right thumb
• Partner: Konan
• First cameo: Chapter 238; Naruto Episode 135
• First appearance: Chapter 363
• Defining characteristics: Pupils consist of concentric circles, numerous piercings, Astral Projection.

Template:Nihongo is the leader of Akatsuki and a missing-nin from Amegakure. He is referred to as “leader” by all Akatsuki members except for his partner, who refers to him by his name. He has the respect of most of his subordinates (Hidan is an exception) and is the one directing their actions. Despite maintaining authority over the other members, he takes orders from Tobi, who is also revealed to be Madara Uchiha. During his initial appearances Pein appears as nothing more than a shadowy figure with unusual eyes, having several increasingly lighter gray circles around the pupil and a pink outline on the corners of his eyes. As the series progresses, however, elements of his appearance are slowly revealed, with both his auburn hair and the piercings on his chin being shown before the rest of his face.

Although he has not been seen in battle, the unnamed member states that Pein has never lost a fight.^[7] The only jutsu he is seen using, the Template:Nihongo, allows him to clone his subordinates using human sacrifices that they control and can use to engage enemies without risking their lives. The clones formed are perfect copies of the original, even possessing the kekkei genkai and unique weapons they may possess. Their abilities are proportionate to the amount of chakra given to the clone (in its debut, he requested thirty percent). Pein also initiates and supervises the jutsu that forcibly brings a tailed beast out of its host. When it becomes necessary to gather his subordinates, he can communicate with them over long distances through some form of telepathy. Moreover, Pein has displayed the ability detect the movements and chakra of people travelling within rain.

Pein has displayed at least a cursory knowledge of the various villages, as well as the underlying political and economic conditions in the country at large. When Hidan referred to the Konoha-nin as “godless heathens,” he gave a short description of Konoha’s “Will of Fire,” then proceeded to note that all countries have some similar practice to justify their battles.^[8] He is also rumored to be the leader of one of the warring factions in the Land of Rain’s current civil war, where he uses Amegakure as his base of operations.

Tobi

Tobi

• Membership status: Active
• Ring: 玉 (”jewel”, “ball”; “jade”; also the king in shogi)
• Ring position: Left thumb
• Partner: Formerly Deidara
• First appearance: Chapter 280
• Defining characteristics: Orange mask with single eye-hole covered in a swirl pattern concentrated towards the right eye, Sharingan

When first introduced, Template:Nihongo was Zetsu’s subordinate, who then became a full Akatsuki member after Sasori’s death. He now wears the same ring as Sasori, having recovered it after Sasori’s death, and took his place as Deidara’s partner. After Deidara’s death, Tobi is revealed giving Pein orders, and he refers to himself as Madara Uchiha.^[9] Unlike the majority of ninja thus far, Tobi has not been shown wearing a visible forehead protector; however, his Uchiha name would suggest that his home village is Konohagakure. He wears an odd mask that covers his entire face save for his right eye, which like other Uchiha has the Sharingan. Furthermore, Tobi has several bolts or pins present on the arms of his uniform, now obscured by his Akatsuki cloak.

Tobi’s area of expertise remains unclear, as he has never been shown fighting or utilizing jutsu. He and Deidara are able to defeat the three-tailed beast, but Tobi is never shown doing anything but running from it. After the battle, which goes largely unwitnessed, Tobi claims to have knocked it out with a single attack. Deidara disagrees with the assessment, claiming that it was his “artistic contribution” (exploding clay) that allowed them to win. During his fight with Sasuke, Tobi shows the ability to recover from what are presumably debilitating or fatal blows. After being slashed across the midsection by Sasuke’s sword, Tobi collapses, only to stand up again a few seconds later and complain about the speed of the attack. He is also able to escape the final explosion created by Deidara.

As Tobi, he has a very formal and correct manner of speech. While his physical appearance remains a mystery, Zetsu has implied that he is relatively young when one side of him referred to Tobi as a “good boy.” He respects Deidara, referring to him as Deidara-senpai. Tobi’s personality is rather odd in comparison with other Akatsuki members; while most of the members are dedicated and serious, Tobi is more carefree and goofy. His personality does not please Deidara, who believes that all Akatsuki members should be serious and calm. Tobi unintentionally irritates Deidara frequently, which usually results in Deidara attacking Tobi in a comedic fashion. Kisame, on the other hand, somewhat appreciates Tobi’s ability to brighten up their gloomy organization.^[10] As Madara, his personality and speech are completely different, however, as he speaks much less formally and is more serious and arrogant.

Konan

The unnamed member

• Membership status: Active
• Ring: 白 (”white”)
• Ring position: Right middle finger
• Partner: Pein
• First cameo: Chapter 238, Naruto Episode 135
• First appearance: Chapter 363
• Defining characteristics: Flower-like accessory in hair, stud under lip,

Konan is the only female member of Akatsuki and the only person to call Pein by his name. She has blue hair with a flower accessory in it, and she uses paper origami as her jutsu. Everything else about this member is a mystery.

Zetsu

Zetsu

• Membership status: Active
• Ring: 亥 (”boar”)
• Ring position: Right little finger
• Partner: None
• First appearance: Chapter 234; Naruto Episode 134
• Defining characteristics: Venus-flytrap like extensions around body, dual personality, body split into white and black halves, cannibal.
• Seiyu: Nobuo Tobita

Template:Nihongo is a mysterious missing-nin. Not much is known about him, other than his allegiance to Akatsuki and his function as a spy. His head appears to be enveloped in a large venus flytrap, which can also envelop the rest of his body. The right side of his face and body is black in color while his left side is white in color. To go with this, Zetsu seems to have a split personality, as the black half of his face speaks only in Katakana while the white side uses Kanji and Kana. The two halves also seem to converse with each other, and occasionally differ in opinion, such as whether to allow Tobi to fill Sasori’s place in Akatsuki. His eyes are yellow and pupil-less.

Zetsu frequently uses Template:Nihongo, allowing him to merge with the ground, trees, and other plants to travel long distances fairly quickly.^[11] He has also shown the ability to move his body during the sealing ritual, which no other Akatsuki member is capable of. As such, he serves as a lookout during the ritual. To help with this task, Zetsu has increased vision that allows him to see further than most other characters. In addition to his role as a spy, Zetsu appears to function as Akatsuki’s hunter-nin. He is sent to dispose of the corpses of those used for Pein’s Shapeshifting Technique, as well as recover the rings of Sasori and Deidara. He performs the former function by devouring the corpses, which fits with his “venus flytrap” theme.^[12]

Zetsu’s only known subordinate is Tobi, who later took Sasori’s position in Akatsuki after Sasori’s death. Akatsuki members have so far generally seemed to report to Zetsu as if he was a superior, though perhaps only because he is often acting directly on the instructions of Pein.

Former members

Deidara

Deidara

• Membership status: Deceased; unreplaced
• Ring: 青 (“blue”, “green”)
• Ring position: Right index finger
• Partner: Formerly Tobi, Sasori before that
• First cameo: Chapter 238; Naruto Episode 135
• First appearance: Chapter 247; Shippūden Episode 2
• Defining characteristics: Specialist in explosive-based jutsu using clay, clay manipulation with mouths in palms of hands and chest, scope on left eye, left eye trained to counter Sharingan genjutsu
• Seiyu: Katsuhiko Kawamoto

Template:Nihongo is a missing-nin from Iwagakure and the partner of Tobi. Deidara refers to his ninjutsu as art, believing each bomb he makes to be such works. He refers to style as superflat (the word itself used to refer to certain types of manga), and claims pop is dead. One of Deidara’s catchphrases, “Art is a blast” (or variations therein), was originally coined by famous Japanese abstract artist Tarō Okamoto. Deidara is very proud of his art, to the point that he is simply unwilling to accept that anything could defeat it, leading to frequent overconfidence in battle. Deidara also has a habit of ending his sentences with a mumble/grunt, usually transcribed as un or mmm, in the same way Naruto ends most of his sentences with -ttebayo. Deidara has become the most popular member of Akatsuki among fans in Japan. In the most recent character popularity poll, Deidara ranked in third place, even higher than Naruto Uzumaki.

Image:Deidarahands.jpg

One of Deidara’s palm mouths.

In battle, Deidara uses special mouths in the palm of each hand to create Template:Nihongo. As the name suggests he can make the clay explode using the command Template:Nihongo. To give the clay its explosive properties, Deidara must infuse his chakra with it; the more chakra he adds the stronger the blast. Deidara can shape this clay into a number of forms for a variety of purposes, be it creatures that can be used for flight or sneak attacks, copies of himself to be used as a distraction, or weapon variants such as mines. Some clay forms even receive a ranking system from Deidara much like that of C-4. Many of the clay creations he makes he refers to as “C1″, and their explosive power is roughly equivalent to that of a hand grenade. “C2″ is his title for a large clay dragon that uses the clay from its tail to shoot smaller explosives at opponent. His “C3″, while never actually seen formed, is an immobile clay statue that is used like a bomb, and upon making contact with the ground has the potential to decimate an entire village. His final and strongest, “C4″, is created by eating clay with his mouth and then spitting out a large copy of itself. Once the clone detonates it release a number of microscopic bombs over a large area that enter an opponent’s body through their nasal passages and, upon detonating, cause the target to dissolve into dust. As a last resort Deidara has an additional, unranked, mouth on his chest that, once being unsealed and provided with clay, turns himself into a living bomb that destroys everything in a 10 kilometer radius at the cost of his life. In addition to his explosive clay, Deidara wears a scope on his left eye for long-range observation, and he has trained the eye itself to dispel genjutsu.

Before joining Akatsuki, Deidara was a terrorist bomber for hire, seeing it as an opportunity to use his “art” on a regular basis. He was involuntarily recruited by Itachi under the orders of the leader. While he becomes accustomed to Akatsuki, he continually holds a grudge against Itachi and longs to defeat him to prove himself. After joining, Deidara is partnered with Sasori, who he refers to as Template:Nihongo. Deidara respects Sasori as a stronger fighter and great artist, thought he two disagree on what fine art is. Deidara holds that art is transient, departing quickly. Sasori believed that fine art is something wonderful that’s left long into the future. This reflects their individual natures (Deidara makes clay sculptures that explode, Sasori makes long-lasting puppets out of humans). After Sasori’s death, Tobi is assigned as Deidara’s new partner. Deidara gets impatient with Tobi fairly easily, since Tobi rarely pays attention to what he is saying. Tobi’s inattentiveness often results in Deidara attacking him in some way, either with his exploding clay or an attempt to suffocate him. Despite this hostile relationship he has with Tobi, Deidara has formed a student-teacher connection with him; Tobi even refers to him as “senpai“. Once in battle the two prove able to work well together, with Tobi doing Deidara’s bidding and Deidara using caution when his exploding clay gets too close to Tobi. Prior to blowing himself up, he apologizes to Tobi for what he is about to do.

After hearing of Orochimaru’s death at the hands of Sasuke Uchiha, Deidara, angry that someone other than himself killed Orochimaru, sets out with Tobi to seek revenge against Sasuke. Upon finding Sasuke, Deidara quickly starts to fight him, though Sasuke’s abilities and Sharingan allow him to avoid the worst of Deidara’s clay explosions. Enraged that Sasuke, like Itachi many years earlier, is using his Sharingan to defeat him, Deidara attempts to use his C4 explosives to kill him and prove that his art is better than that of the Sharingan’s. Sasuke once again avoids the blasts, and Deidara is left out of chakra and thus unable to create more explosives. In a last ditch effort to kill Sasuke, Deidara uses the mouth in his chest to turn himself into a bomb in the hopes that he can take Sasuke with him. His effort proves unsuccessful, and Akatsuki mourns his loss.

Hidan

Hidan

• Membership status: Neutralized, unreplaced
• Ring: 三 (”three”)
• Ring position: Left index finger
• Partner: Formerly Kakuzu
• First Cameo: Chapter 238, Naruto Episode 135
• First Appearance: Chapter 312
• Defining characteristics: Immortal, wields large three-bladed scythe

Template:Nihongo is the foul-mouthed partner of Kakuzu and, at the time of his membership, was the second-newest member of Akatsuki.^[13] The first kanji in Hidan’s name (飛) stands for hisha, the rook in shogi. Hidan belongs to the Jashin religion, a religion that worships a deity named Jashin and where anything less than utter destruction is considered a sin.^[14] As a part of his religion, Hidan owns a charm with an upside-down triangle inscribed inside a circle that he carries on a chain of beads. Before a battle starts he prays to this charm, asking for nothing short of a kill or, in the event that a target must be captured alive, for forgiveness. Once a battle has begun, Hidan dislikes being interrupted or being forced to stop the fight, and it takes a great deal of persuasion to get him to comply. After battles, should he have time, Hidan performs a thirty-minute ritual in accordance with his religion, which seems to culminate by stabbing himself in the chest and lying upon the ground.^[15]

Image:Hidanupgraded.jpg

Hidan after his transformation.

Hidan is apparently immortal, having been fatally wounded a number of times and even surviving decapitations while still retaining the ability to speak.^[16][17] Although he can survive dismemberment, Hidan needs to be connected to his body in order to control it.^[18] Kakuzu is able to help Hidan in these situations by using his threads to reattach his body parts, allowing the wounds to heal with time. Kakuzu can also take advantage of Hidan’s immortality by attacking without worry of needing a new partner, allowing Hidan to act as a distraction while Kakuzu attacks their opponents from afar. Although neither is fond of their partnership, this coupling of abilities makes the two ideal teammates.

In battle, Hidan wields a three-bladed scythe that, in addition to causing fatal injuries, increases Hidan’s chance of drawing some of an opponent’s blood. Upon acquiring blood and consuming it, Hidan draws the same symbol that is on his charm on the ground. Once entering this symbol Hidan’s skin turns black with white lines in roughly the same locations as his bones. He also becomes “linked” with the opponent, causing any damage done to him to also be done to the opponent (akin to a voodoo doll).^[19] So long as this link is active Hidan is able to cause damage to himself at his leisure, bringing him pleasure from the pain it causes to both himself and the opponent. After toying with his opponent by giving himself nonlethal injuries, Hidan stabs himself in the chest, fatally injuring the opponent and causing his transformation to reverse. While being a useful technique, Hidan needs to remain within the symbol for the voodoo-like effects to work.^[20] If he does leave, the link still exists and his transformation remains, leaving him to only need to return to the symbol to resume the technique.

As Hidan and Kakuzu travel through the Land of Fire, Hidan is forced into battle with Asuma Sarutobi. After forming a link with Asuma and preparing to kill him, Hidan is stopped by Shikamaru Nara. Although Shikamaru is able to break the link and allow Asuma to decapitate Hidan, Hidan is soon able to rejoin his body with Kakuzu’s help, reform the link, and kill Asuma. Before Hidan can turn his attention to Shikamaru and the rest of his team, he and Kakuzu are called away by the Akatsuki leader. Once their business is finished, Hidan and Kakuzu set out for Konoha to finish their battle, though along the way they are captured by Shikamaru, who had been waiting for them. Although Kakuzu is able to escape, Shikamaru is able to use his shadow to force Hidan to attack him, although he eventually decides to lead Hidan away so the rest of his team can deal with Kakuzu. Upon reaching his destination, Shikamaru restrains Hidan, covers him in exploding tags, and causes a pit beneath Hidan to break away. Finally having a chance to avenge Asuma’s death, Shikamaru lights a cigarette and tosses it at Hidan, causing the exploding tags to detonate. As his remains fall into the pit Hidan promises to kill Shikamaru in any way possible, to which Shikamaru responds by causing the pit to cave in, trapping Hidan beneath the rubble. While his actual status is currently unknown, Akatsuki no longer considers him a member.^[21]

Kakuzu

Kakuzu

• Membership status: Deceased, unreplaced
• Ring: 北 (”north”)
• Ring position: Left middle finger
• Partner: Formerly Hidan
• First Cameo: Chapter 238, Naruto Episode 135
• First Appearance: Chapter 312
• Defining characteristics: Able to extend life indefinitely through extraction and incorporation of foreign human hearts, can possess five human hearts at once, able to use all five chakra elements, body contains many threads for attack and body manipulation, short temper

Template:Nihongo is a missing-nin from Takigakure and Hidan’s partner, a partnership neither is very fond of. The first kanji in Kakuzu’s name (角) stands for kakugyō, a bishop in shogi. Kakuzu is a greedy individual, prioritizing things in terms of how much they are worth and finding money to be the only thing that he can depend on.^[22] Kakuzu’s favorite source of income is collecting bounties while carrying out other missions, even putting up with Hidan’s religion since it allows him to collect bounties faster. His history as a bounty hunter seems to be extensive, as he is on friendly terms with a bounty collector and even seems to have memorized the information and worth of some of the more dangerous bounties. This view of money has caused Kakuzu to refer to himself as the “Treasurer of Akatsuki”, though it is unknown if this is an actual position.^[22] Despite finding Akatsuki to be a good source of income, Kakuzu greatly dislikes the fact that he needs a teammate, due in part to his habit of killing anyone near him (partners included) when enraged. Having killed all of his previous partners as a result of this, Kakuzu was partnered with Hidan. Although neither enjoys being paired together, Hidan’s inability to die makes him the ideal teammate for Kakuzu.

Image:Kakuzumasks.jpg

The masks sewn onto Kakuzu’s back

Kakuzu has a unique body structure that consists largely of thick black threads running throughout his body, which he can use to detach parts of his body for long range assaults. The threads themselves can also be used for attack, being able to pierce the bodies of others with relative ease. These threads are apparently limitless, as Kakuzu can use them to change his appearance and visually increase his size several times over as a result.^[23] Kakuzu’s threads also allow him to integrate foreign organs into his system, allowing him to extend his life indefinitely by taking the healthier organs of others.^[24] He has used this ability to lengthen his lifespan by a great deal, as he claims to have fought the First Hokage at some point in his life.^[24] Kakuzu most prominently uses hearts in this way, keeping up to four extra hearts with him at any given time.^[25] He keeps his spare hearts stored within animal masks sewn to his back, and each of the masks can separate from his body and attack independently.^[26]

Once removed from his body, the masks can utilize powerful blasts of elemental chakra, with each blast being given its own name: Template:Nihongo,^[27] Template:Nihongo,^[28] and Template:Nihongo.^[29] These masks can also combine to increase the potency of their attacks, with one element gaining strength as a result of a second. If the heart in Kakuzu’s body is destroyed, one of the masks can quickly remerge with him so that he can take use of its heart, causing the mask to crumble away. In the event that he loses one of his hearts, Kakuzu seems to prefer taking the heart of the opponent responsible, prolonging his life from the strength of his enemy. Kakuzu also has an earth-based defensive jutsu referred to as Template:Nihongo, which increases his strength and makes him virtually immune to physical attacks.^[30] It is not clear if this ability is a result of his fifth heart, or if it is that of his fourth mask.

As Kakuzu and Hidan make their way to Konohagakure to finish an earlier battle, the two are met by a group of four Konoha ninja. Soon after the battle starts, Kakashi Hatake is able to pierce Kakuzu with his Lightning Blade, destroying one of his masks. His current heart being unscathed, Kakuzu brings out his other three masks with which to attack the Konoha ninja. While he is able to gain the upperhand, Shikamaru Nara is able to trick Hidan into using his voodoo-like ability on Kakuzu, causing him to lose one of his hearts. After taking the heart from one of his masks Kakuzu prepares to finish off the group, though the arrival of reinforcements stops his attack. Naruto Uzumaki, the host of the Nine-Tailed Demon Fox, does battle with Kakuzu and is in time able to strike him with his Wind Release: Spiraling Shuriken, striking Kakuzu at a cellular level and severing all of his nerves. Losing his two spare hearts and leaving his other heart on the verge of failure as a result of the attack, Kakuzu is left defeated and unable to move. With the last of his strength he attempts to figure out how he could be defeated by some “kids”, which Kakashi attributes to the natural progression of things before finishing him off.

[edit] Orochimaru

Main article: Orochimaru

• Membership status: Defected, unreplaced
• Ring: 空 (”sky”)
• Ring position: Left little finger
• Partner: Formerly Sasori
• Defining characteristics: Snake-like appearance, able to extend life via transferring soul into new bodies, mastery of snake-based jutsu, able to extend body parts to great lengths

Template:Nihongo was formerly a member of Akatsuki, where he worked as Sasori’s partner. He eventually attempted to use his Living Corpse Reincarnation jutsu to steal the body of Itachi Uchiha, a fellow member, six years before the start of the series. Itachi responded, effortlessly paralyzing him and severing his left hand. After this incident, Orochimaru left Akatsuki. Upon leaving, he kept his Akatsuki ring, which is currently still on the hand of his original body. The apparent special nature of his ring, his knowledge of their plans, and bad blood have led to him being the target of a number of Akatsuki plots, one of which involved a member of his retinue being a (eventually double) sleeper agent. Orochimaru intended to eliminate Akatsuki, as well; however, he is currently presumed to be dead.

Whatever their remaining connections were, Orochimaru and Akatsuki also seemed to have been working off similar timetables, as the three years it takes Orochimaru to prepare to take over Sasuke’s body seem to coincide with Akatsuki’s plans for capturing more tailed beasts.

Sasori

Image:Sasori-anime.JPG

Sasori

• Membership status: Deceased, replaced by Tobi
• Ring: 玉 (”jewel”, “ball”, also the king in shogi)
• Ring position: Left thumb
• Partner: Formerly Deidara, Orochimaru before that
• First Cameo: Chapter 238, Naruto Episode 135
• First Appearance: Chapter 247, Shippuden Episode 2
• Defining characteristics: Puppet master, puppet body, poison specialist
• Seiyu: Takahiro Sakurai, Yutaka Aoyama (Hiruko), Akiko Yajima (as a child)

Template:Nihongo, also known as Template:Nihongo, is a missing-nin from Sunagakure. “Sasori” (蠍) also means scorpion. After the death of his parents, at the hands of the Konoha’s White Fang, Sasori was left in the care of his grandmother, Chiyo, who taught him all she knew about puppetry. After proving adept with the ability, Sasori used his newfound knowledge to make puppets identical to his parents in an attempt to feel loved by them. Because they were only emotionless puppets, this effort failed, and he eventually abandoned Sunagakure twenty years prior to his introduction. Sometime after leaving the village, Sasori joined Akatsuki and was eventually paired with Orochimaru. After Orochimaru left Akatsuki, Sasori was teamed up with Deidara, though he always carried a grudge against his former partner. Sasori would come to form a better working relationship with Deidara, as seen by Deidara’s idolizing of Sasori’s abilities. Although the two have differing views of art (Deidara preferring works that depart quickly and Sasori favoring long-lasting pieces), Deidara considers Sasori to be his master until the very end, even though Sasori himself never appreciated his ideals.

Image:Hiruko.JPG

Sasori inside Hiruko

In battle, Sasori almost exclusively uses puppets, his favorite being Template:Nihongo which he controls from the inside to protect himself from damage. Because Sasori wears Hiruko so often, even adorning it with the Akatsuki outfit, many can only recognize him while he is wearing it. If Hiruko proves ineffective Sasori can use himself in battle, having long since converted his body into a puppet. In addition to giving him an unnaturally young appearance, Sasori’s puppet body allows him to control hundreds of puppets at once through a mechanism on his chest that can spin numerous chakra strings. Because puppets cannot control chakra, Sasori has preserved his heart in a cylinder-shaped device which enables him to use puppets in combat. Since his heart is the only living part of himself, his puppet body is virtually indestructible as he can pull himself back together when smashed apart.^[31] Additionally, he can transfer his heart to other puppets, allowing him to abandon a body should it be damaged beyond repair or otherwise incapacitated.

The majority of Sasori’s puppets are made from the bodies of humans. Once the entrails are removed, the blood has been drawn out, and the body is preserved so that it no longer decomposes, it can be used as a Template:Nihongo. Because these puppets were once human they are capable of using chakra and performing jutsu, giving them a drastic advantage over the average puppet. His favorite human puppet is that of the Third Kazekage, who he kidnapped and killed before leaving Sunagakure, and through which he can use the Third’s unique Iron Sand ability. With the Template:Nihongo, Sasori can summon one hundred human puppets to be used as an army, each of which was once an opponent he has since defeated. To add some potency to his puppets’ attack, Sasori adds a poison of his own creation to everything in his arsenal. The poison takes effect instantly and, should a highly talented medical ninja not be found to create an antidote, kills the target after three days of suffering.

Sasori has a number of spies spread throughout the Naruto world that he has brought into his service with a form of mind control. Once such spy is Yura, who Sasori uses to give Deidara an easier time in capturing Gaara. Once Deidara succeeds in his task and the One-Tailed Shukaku is extracted from Gaara by Akatsuki, a search party arrives to retrieve Gaara. As the group splits up to fight Deidara and Sasori, Sasori is forced into battle with Chiyo and Sakura Haruno. By controlling Sakura as a puppet Chiyo is able to help her destroy Hiruko and the Third Kazekage in turn. In an attempt to claim victory Sasori uses his puppet army to defeat the duo, though Chiyo’s own puppets are able to defeat them. After his puppet body is immobilized, Sasori transfers to a new body to try a sneak attack on Chiyo, though Sakura blocks the attack. Using this opportunity to her advantage, Chiyo calls forth the puppets of Sasori’s parents, which she had kept since his departure from Sunagakure, to stab him through the heart in the form of a hug. As a reward to Sakura for defeating him, Sasori informs her of the spy, Kabuto Yakushi, that he has within Orochimaru’s ranks, and tells her of when and where she can meet him.

Former agents

Kabuto Yakushi

Main article: Kabuto Yakushi

• Status: Defected

Kabuto Yakushi was a former spy for Sasori, forced into the position through a form of mind control. Kabuto was used by Sasori to infiltrate Orochimaru’s group, but Orochimaru removed the mind control on Kabuto shortly after he joined. Kabuto then betrayed Sasori and Akatsuki in favor of Orochimaru.

Yura

• Status: Deceased
• Rank: Jonin
• Debut: Chapter 247, Shippūden episode 2
• Seiyu: Hideo Watanabe

Template:Nihongo, whose name means “beginning” in Japanese, served as a trusted member of the Kazekage advisory council of Sunagakure for four years. In reality, he was a sleeper agent for Akatsuki and a subordinate of Sasori. He was used in the Akatsuki leader’s Shapeshifting Technique, which made him take on the shape of Itachi Uchiha and allowed Itachi to take control of his body. Naruto killed him with his Great Ball Rasengan while in this form.

World Ocean Conference

World Ocean Conference is a conference of head of the states that have coastal and marine territories, scientists, NGO’s, journalists, private sector, and stakeholders to achieve international commitments in sustainable development of marine resources and the prosperity of humankind WOC is held because of the international agreements and conventions are important and have adequately accepted. However, there is a lack of political willingness to grieve forward and further implement such as agreements. WOC’ 09 will provide a platform where world leaders and decision makers will come together to make commitment for sustainable development of marine resources. Given the fact that Indonesia the largest archipelago country and possesses the highest marine bio diversity in the world, the conference will strengthen Indonesia’s participation in the regional and international forum. Gradual degradation of marine and fisheries resources has been related to over fishing, pollution, less prosperity of coastal and marine communities and climate change. Global effort to stop this trend is urgently required. International agreements and conventions on oceans are important and have been adequately accepted. However, there is a lack of political willingness to drive forward and further implement such agreements. WOC’09 will provide a platform where world leaders and decision makers will come together to make commitments for sustainable development of marine resources. Given the fact that Indonesia is the largest archipelagic country and possesses the highest marine biodiversity in the world, the summit will strengthen Indonesia’s participation in the regional, international, and forum. Gradual degradation of marine and fisheries resources has been related to overfishing, pollution, and climate change. Global effort to stop this trend is urgently required.

Global Warming

Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s near-surface air and oceans in recent decades and its projected continuation.

The global average air temperature near the Earth’s surface rose 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) during the hundred years ending in 2005.[1] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes “most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-twentieth century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations”[1] via the greenhouse effect. Natural phenomena such as solar variation combined with volcanoes probably had a small warming effect from pre-industrial times to 1950 and a small cooling effect from 1950 onward.[2][3] These basic conclusions have been endorsed by at least thirty scientific societies and academies of science,[4] including all of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries.[5][6][7] While individual scientists have voiced disagreement with some findings of the IPCC,[8] the overwhelming majority of scientists working on climate change agree with the IPCC’s main conclusions.[9][10]

Climate model projections summarized by the IPCC indicate that average global surface temperature will likely rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F) during the twenty-first century.[1] The range of values results from the use of differing scenarios of future greenhouse gas emissions as well as models with differing climate sensitivity. Although most studies focus on the period up to 2100, warming and sea level rise are expected to continue for more than a thousand years even if greenhouse gas levels are stabilized. The delay in reaching equilibrium is a result of the large heat capacity of the oceans.[1]

Increasing global temperature will cause sea level to rise, and is expected to increase the intensity of extreme weather events and to change the amount and pattern of precipitation. Other effects of global warming include changes in agricultural yields, trade routes, glacier retreat, species extinctions and increases in the ranges of disease vectors.

Remaining scientific uncertainties include the amount of warming expected in the future, and how warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe. Most national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but there is ongoing political and public debate worldwide regarding what, if any, action should be taken to reduce or reverse future warming or to adapt to its expected consequences.

Benitez: Reds di Posisi Terbaik

MILAN – Keperkasaan Liverpool pada kancah Liga Champions kembali menelan korban. Inter Milan harus mengakui ketangguhan Steven Gerrard dkk. Menariknya, pelatih Rafael Benitez merendah dengan menilai Liverpool bukan klub favorit juara.

Seperti diketahui, The Reds membukukan kemenangan 2-0 pada leg 1 di Anfield. Kemudian, klub wakil Inggris itu kembali meredam Inter 1-0 ketika bermain di Stadion Giuseppe Meazza.

Pelatih asal Spanyol itu mengakui, laga malawan Inter merupakan momen yang sangat berat. “Ini merupakan pertandingan yang sulit melawan klub yang tidak mudah dikalahkan. Kami sadar malawan tim yang sulit. Mereka memimpin klasemen Serie A,” kata Benitez Benitez kepada Skysports, Kamis (12/3/2008).

“Tapi, ketika Anda berbicara tentang Arsenal, Chelsea dan Manchester United, ketiganya juga merupakan tim yang tangguh. Kami dalam posisi yang baik dan juga mereka,” lanjutnya.

Hasil itu, membuat Premier League menempatkan wakil terbanyak yaitu 4 klub. Selain Liverpool, Inggris juga diwakilkan Manchester United, Arsenal, dan Chelsea. Keempat klub itu juga sangat berpaluang saling menyingkirkan pada babak perempat final.

Pria Romantis Lebih Disukai

TERNYATA sikap pria yang romantis lebih disenangi kaum Hawa. Memang wanita selalu takjub dengan segala sesuatu yang berbau romantisme, baik dari sikap dan perlakuan maupun perwujudan berupa barang yang disukai. Hal ini dapat dimaklumi karena romantis dapat membahagiakan mereka.

“Meskipun tanpa orang lain kesenangan dapat dilakukan sendiri, perlakuan romantis dari pasangan lebih disenangi oleh seorang wanita merasa bahagia. Bahkan tidak menutup kemungkinan hingga memberikan kenyamanan diperlakukan romantis,” kata A Kasandra Putranto, Psi, dari Kasandra Persona Wacana, ketika dihubungi okezone melalui telepon genggamnya, Rabu (12/3/2008).

Menurutnya, kaum wanita lebih suka segala sesuatu yang berbau romantis, karena mereka merasa senang sekali jika ada pria yang berusaha menyentuh mereka dari sisi emosi. Sehingga tidak mengherankan jika wanita suka sekali diberi kejutan-kejutan yang sifatnya romantis oleh pasangan.

Pria romantis, sambungnya, dapat menempatkan dan menghargai pasangan dan mereka dianggap sudah bertindak sebagai pria sejati. Sehingga tidak heran bila pria romantis dipuja wanita sebagai gentleman.

Namun, bukan berarti setiap pria dapat dituntut untuk romantis terhadap Anda. Hal ini berlandaskan pada alasan di mana saat tertentu pria mau bertindak romantis, tapi tidak bisa karena bukan orang yang romantis. Atau kebalikannya, dia merupakan sosok yang romantis tapi tidak mau melakukannya.

Nah, untuk menanggapi hal ini dapat diupayakan dengan berbagai cara. Salah satunya adalah melakukan komunikasi efektif. “Komunikasi ini dilakukan dengan cara mengutarakan apa yang diinginkan terhadap pasangan. Sehingga dapat mengajarkan padanya apabila ingin diperlakukan romantis,” ungkap wanita ramah ini.

Hal ini beralasan karena berdasar pada persaingan antara 150 juta jiwa manusia di Indonesia. Di mana jumlah wanita lebih banyak dari pria, maka tidak dapat terpaku pada sesuatu yang baku. Apalagi hingga menuntut seorang pria untuk menjadi Mr Perfect.

“Memang seorang wanita dapat meminta pasangannya untuk romantis. Tapi bila pasangan tidak dapat romantis, maka terimalah apa adanya pasangan Anda,” imbuhnya.

Meski demikian, romantis yang berlebihan menurut Kasandra dapat berubah menjadi posesif. Karena itu, perlu dibedakan dan beri batasan antara romantis dan posesif. “Agar romantis tidak kebablasan menjadi posesif, maka kecerdasan emosilah yang sebaiknya diperankan di sini,” tukas Kasandra.